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[145] Blaquiere further assisted the campaign by publishing two books in 1824, in which he claimed: "I should have no hesitation whatever in estimating the physical strength of regenerated Greece to be fully equal to the whole South American continent", concluding there was "no part of the worldwith a more productive soil or happier climate than GreeceOf all the countries or governments who have borrowed money in London within the last ten yearsGreece possesses the surest and most ample means of re-payment". [183] In April 1827, Church and Cochrane arrived at Athens and immediately clashed over strategy. Some historians argue that Ottoman atrocities were given wide coverage in Europe, while Greek atrocities tended to be suppressed or played down. Media contact: Barbara Valenza, Director of Library Communications. [153], On 19 July 1824, the largest fleet seen in the Mediterranean since Napoleon invaded Egypt in 1798 set sail from Alexandria, consisting of 54 warships and 400 transports carrying 14,000 French-trained infantry, 2,000 cavalry and 500 artillerymen, with some 150 cannons. [81] In Constantinople, on Easter Sunday, the Patriarch of the Greek Orthodox Church, Gregory V, was publicly hanged although he had condemned the revolution and preached obedience to the Sultan in his sermons. And musing there an hour alone, Be the first to contribute! [46], The society's basic objective was a revival of the Byzantine Empire, with Constantinople as the capital, not the formation of a national state. [140] The battle ended in an Ottoman victory, and with most of the philhellenes killed. [132], From October 1820 to July 1823 the Ottomans were at war with Persia, and in March 1823 a huge fire at the Tophana military arsenal in Constantinople destroyed much of the Ottoman state's supplies of ammunition and its main cannon foundry. [136], The Chios massacre shocked all of Europe and further increased public sympathy for the Greek cause. An independence movement in Peloponnesus (Morea) was incited by Russian agents in 1769, and a Greek flotilla under Lambros Katsonis assisted the Russian fleet in the war of 1788-1792. In turn, the success of the Greek Revolution was to stimulate the incipient stirrings of Jewish nationalism, later called Zionism. Since May, Kolokotronis organized the siege of Tripolitsa, and, in the meantime, Greek forces twice defeated the Turks, who unsuccessfully tried to repulse the besiegers. The Greek cause, however, was saved by the intervention of the European powers. After a long and bloody struggle, and with the aid of the Great Powers, independence was finally granted by the Treaty of Constantinople in July 1832. [167], At the same time, the Turkish armies in Central Greece were besieging the city of Missolonghi for the third time. Our cowardly enemy is sick and weak. [102] The three local statutes were recognized by the First National Assembly, but the respective administrative institutions were turned into administrative branches of the central government. This page was last edited on 23 January 2023, at 11:22. [167] To try to stop Ibrahim, Kanaris led the raid on Alexandria, an attempt to destroy the Egyptian fleet that failed due to a sudden change of the wind. [109], Towards the summer of 1825, a body of three to four hundred Cretans, who had fought with other Greeks in the Peloponnese, arrived in Crete and revitalized the Cretan insurgency (the so-called "Gramvousa period"). [129] Against them stood the Ottoman fleet, which enjoyed several advantages: its ships and supporting craft were built for war; it was supported by the resources of the vast Ottoman Empire; command was centralized and disciplined under the Kapudan Pasha. With the exception of Tripolitsa, all sites had access to the sea and could be resupplied and reinforced by the Ottoman fleet. [6] After nine years of war, Greece was finally recognized as an independent state under the London Protocol of February 1830. [89] The largest contingents came from the German states, France and the Italian states. For the first time, a Christian subject people had achieved independence from Ottoman rule and established a fully independent state, recognized by Europe. We were all plunged into great grief; for half an hour there was so complete a silence that no one would have thought there was a living soul present; each of us was revolving in his mind how great was our misfortune". Meanwhile, news reached Greece in late July 1827 that Muhammad Ali's new fleet was completed in Alexandria and sailing towards Navarino to join the rest of the Egyptian-Turkish fleet. In France, the news of the battle was greeted with great enthusiasm and the government had an unexpected surge in popularity. His army of 7,000 men was held off by an army of 2,000 Maniots and 500 refugees from other parts of Greece until Kolokotronis attacked the Egyptians from the rear and forced them to retreat. [211] Based on the Protocol of Poros, the London Conference agreed on the protocol of 22 March 1829, which accepted most of the ambassadors' proposals but drew the borders farther south than the initial proposal and did not include Samos and Crete in the new state. From 9 to 14 July, the Ottomans killed all prisoners on the list of the pasha, and in the next 30 days, looting and massacres spread throughout Cyprus as 4,000 Turkish soldiers from Syria arrived on the island. [49], As a people, the Greeks no longer provided the princes for the Danubian Principalities, and were regarded within the Ottoman Empire, especially by the Muslim population, as traitors. [34], Due to economic developments within and outside the Ottoman Empire in the 18th century, Greek merchants and sailors became affluent and generated the wealth necessary to found schools and libraries, and to pay for young Greeks to study at the universities of Western Europe. However, the local pasha, Kk Pasha, intercepted these messages and reacted with fury, calling in reinforcements, confiscating weapons and arresting several prominent Cypriots. This year Greece celebrates the bicentennial of its War of Independence against the Ottoman Empire, won with the help . Despite a failed invasion of Mani, Athens also fell and revolutionary morale decreased. This provided that the Allies should again offer negotiations, and if the Sultan rejected it, they would exert all the means which circumstances would allow to force the cessation of hostilities. At a social event, King George IV was reported as referring to the battle as "this untoward event". [3] In 1826, the Greeks became assisted by the British Empire, Kingdom of France, and the Russian Empire, while the Ottomans were aided by their North African vassals, particularly the eyalet of Egypt. Kostans is a multi-award nominated and winner content creator, director . An Arabic word meaning "flock" or "herd animal". The Greek War of Independence(1821-1829), also commonly known as the Greek Revolution,[1]was a successful war by the Greeks who won independence for Greecefrom the Ottoman Empire. Maison thus implemented the convention Codrington had negotiated and signed in Alexandria with Muhammad Ali, which provided for the withdrawal of all Egyptian troops from the Peloponnese. 1. In collaboration with the Seeger Center for Hellenic Studies under the leadership of its Director, Dimitri Gondicas, Princeton University Library has amassed a research-worthy collection related to this conflict, including both rarities held in its Special Collections and the circulating works of modern scholarship. The revolution is celebrated by Greeks around the world as independence day on 25 March every year. Though sometimes referred to as the first armed conflict that established the independence of a modern nation state, the struggle was fraught with so many conflicting political interests and so many incidents of both atrocity and heroism that no simple definition or explanation is possible. [2] Another influential Greek writer and intellectual was Adamantios Korais who witnessed the French Revolution. On June 12, 1776, the Fifth Convention adopted the Virginia Declaration of Rights. [184] Church landed in Greece in March 1827, and was welcomed by his old friend Kolokotronis. few years later, the revolutionary fervour of the southern Greeks was to spread to these parts, and the seeds of Filiki Eteria were speedily to take root. ATHENS (Reuters) - Reviving memories of its battle for independence from Ottoman Turkish rule 200 years ago, Greece is preparing to defy the coronavirus with bicentennial celebrations on Thursday. Many of these freedom-lovers want to come and fight alongside us Who then hinders your manly arms? [210] The Sublime Porte, which had rejected the call for an armistice in 1827, now rejected the conclusions of the Poros conference, with the Sultan Mahmud II saying he would never grant Greece independence, and the war would go on until he reconquered all of Greece. Papageorgiou, "First Year of Freedom", pp. After nearly four hundred years of foreign rule, Greeks often used music and poetry as a means of empowerment in the war. [69] Historian David Brewer noted that Pouqueville was an Anglophobe, and in his account of the speech by Germanos in his book, Pouqueville has the Metropolitan express Anglophobic sentiments similar to those commonly expressed in France, and has him praise France as Greece's one true friend in the world, which led Brewer to conclude that Pouqueville had made the entire story up. A remnant of our Spartan dead! [94] By the end of the war, millions of roubles had been fund-raised in Russia for the relief of refugees and to buy Greeks enslaved freedom (though the government forbade buying arms for the Greeks), but no Russian is known to have gone to fight with the Greeks. [197] Before he met with Wellington, the Tsar had already sent an ultimatum to the Porte, demanding that the principalities be evacuated immediately, and that plenipotentiaries be sent to Russia to settle outstanding issues. [122], In March 1822, Mehmed Emin secured decisive victories at Kolindros and Kastania. Director: Nikos Tzimas | Stars: Nikos Kourkoulos, Niki Triantafillidi, Giannis Argyris, Spyros Kalogirou . Alexander Ypsilantis, accompanied by his brother Nicholas and a remnant of his followers, retreated to Rmnicu Vlcea, where he spent some days negotiating with the Austrian authorities for permission to cross the frontier. Under the protocol signed on 7 May 1832 between Bavaria and the protecting powers, Greece was defined as a "monarchical and independent state" but was to pay an indemnity to the Porte. 5 quotes [127] Although they were manned by experienced crews, the Greek ships were not designed for warfare, being armed merchantmen equipped with only light guns. [171] In early autumn, the Greek navy, under the command of Miaoulis forced the Turkish fleet in the Gulf of Corinth to retreat, after attacking it with fire ships. [62], Michael Soutzos, then Prince of Moldavia and a member of Filiki Etaireia, set his guard at Ypsilantis' disposal. The cash-strapped Ottoman state's relations with Russia, always difficult, had been made worse by the hanging of Patriarch Grigorios, and the Sublime Porte needed to concentrate substantial forces on the Russian border in case war broke out. Tuesday, February 28, 2023 View More [178] The Karteria suffered from constant engine breakdowns, but Hastings was able to use the ship successfully twice over the course of the next two years, at Volos and in the Gulf of Corinth.[178]. As they did in similar cases in the past, the Turks executed the Patriarch after they had had him deposed and replaced, not as patriarch but as a disloyal subject. [38], Revolutionary nationalism grew across Europe during the 18th and 19th centuries (including in the Balkans), due to the influence of the French Revolution. In October 1828, the Greeks regrouped and formed a new government under Kapodistrias. The Ottoman Sultan called in Muhammad Ali of Egypt, who agreed to send his son, Ibrahim Pasha, to Greece with an army to suppress the revolt in return for territorial gains. He was aware of his fate and impending death, yet stood by the Greek cause. After a tense week-long standoff, the Battle of Navarino led to the destruction of the OttomanEgyptian fleet and turned the tide in favor of the revolutionaries. This uprising failed however, and Polish independence would not be restored until 1918 at Versailles. The Greek War of Independence was fought between 1821 and 1832. [172], In the spring of 1826, Ibrahim managed to capture the marshes around the city, although not without heavy losses. The enlightened peoples of Europe are occupied in restoring the same well-being, and, full of gratitude for the benefactions of our forefathers towards them, desire the liberation of Greece. Tzakis, Dionysis "The Military Events (18221824)". By the end of June, Ibrahim had captured the city of Argos and was within striking distance of Nafplion. [182] By the middle of August, only the Acropolis still held out under Yannis Gouras. [228], The consequences of the Greek revolution were somewhat ambiguous in the immediate aftermath. [92] The classicist Edward Everett, a professor of Greek at Harvard, was active in championing the Greek cause in the United States and in November 1821 published an appeal from Adhamantios Korais reading "To the Citizens of the United States, it is your land that Liberty has fixed her abode, so you will not assuredly imitate the culpable indifference or rather the long ingratitude of the Europeans", going on to call for American intervention, in several American newspapers. Ibrahim agreed to write to the Sultan to see if he would change his orders, but he also complained about the Greeks being able to continue their attacks. GeorgiadisArnakis argues that the Church of Constantinople conducted "a magnificent work of national conservation", and contributed to the national liberation of all the subject nationalities of the Balkan peninsula. [141] The successive military campaigns of the Ottomans in Western and Eastern Greece were repulsed: in 1822, Mahmud Dramali Pasha crossed Roumeli and invaded Morea, but suffered a serious defeat in the Dervenakia. [163] The Greeks had not expected Ibrahim Pasha to land during the stormy winter weather, and were taken by surprise. A letter of Lord Byron seeking the release of a boatful of Greeks captured off Patras, dated March 2, 1824, a month and a half before his death. Karaiskakis served in the army of Ali Pasha in his war against the Ottomans (1820-22), but after his defeat and death, Karaiskakis fled to Vonitsa. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. War of Greek Independence, (182132), rebellion of Greeks within the Ottoman Empire, a struggle which resulted in the establishment of an independent kingdom of Greece. [93] Newspapers in the United States gave the war much coverage and were overwhelmingly pro-Greek in their stance, which explains why American public opinion was so supportive. [223], Some of the more infamous atrocities include the Chios Massacre, the Constantinople Massacre, the Destruction of Psara, Massacre of Samothrace (1821), Kasos Massacre, Naousa massacre, Third siege of Missolonghi, the massacres following the Tripolitsa Massacre, and the Navarino Massacre. [112] During 1828, Kapodistrias sent Mavrocordatos with British and French fleets to Crete to deal with the klephts and the pirates. [152], During this period, the two first installments of the English loan had arrived, and the position of the government was strengthened; but the infighting was not yet over. [111], The economic ascent of Thessaloniki and of the other urban centres of Macedonia coincided with the cultural and political renaissance of the Greeks. When the news of the Greek Revolution was first received, the reaction of the European powers was uniformly hostile. Of the 89 Egyptian-Turkish ships that took part in the battle, only 14 made it back to Alexandria and their dead amounted to over 8,000. From the Greek translation of Svoronos (Nicolas), Robert Zegger, "Greek Independence and the London Committee". Some of them are listed below. [35] There they came into contact with the radical ideas of the European Enlightenment, the French Revolution and romantic nationalism. [95], Haiti was the first government of an independent state to recognise the Greek independence. [133], On 11 April 1822, the Ottoman fleet, under the Kapitan Pasha, Kara Ali, arrived on the island of Chios. [166] With the Greeks in disarray, Ibrahim ravaged the Western Peloponnese and killed Papaflessas at the Battle of Maniaki. [205] A full engagement was begun which ended in a complete victory for the Allies and in the annihilation of the Egyptian-Turkish fleet. By its nature, war is harsh, brutal, and pitiless, and while it can call out . However, the plans of the Filiki Eteria were discovered by the Ottoman authorities, forcing the revolution to start earlier. The battle-scarred hero of the Greek Revolution, Giannos "Astrapogiannos", returns home after the end of the blood-soaked War of Independence, only to find himself in a new conflict, as he locks horns with a ruthless local Kodjabashis. [24], Nevertheless, klephts and armatoloi formed a provincial elite, though not a social class, whose members would muster under a common goal. In Constantinople and the rest of the Ottoman Empire where Greek banking and merchant presence had been dominant, Armenians mostly replaced Greeks in banking, and Jewish merchants gained importance.[230]. The Turks attempted three times (182224) to invade the Peloponnese but were unable to retrieve the area. [174] On 22 April, the Greeks decided to sail from the city during the night, with 3,000 men, to cut a path through the Egyptian lines and allow 6,000 women, children and non-combatants to follow. But he articulated his moral and political support for the revolution, notably by filling his letter with references to classical Greek history, demonstrating a detailed knowledge of this history and powerfully evoking the contemporary revolutionaries as the rightful heirs of their ancestors. Codrington responded by saying that if Ibrahim's fleets attempted to go anywhere but home, he would have to destroy them. [44], Feraios' martyrdom was to inspire three young Greek merchants: Nikolaos Skoufas, Emmanuil Xanthos, and Athanasios Tsakalov. In 1828, the Egyptian army withdrew under pressure from a French expeditionary force. Select a Chapter Prelude From Resistance to Rebellion Continental Forces Fighting the War Allies and Enemies George Washington's Legacy [116], It would take until the end of the century for the city's Greek community to recover. We, the inhabitants of Mani, sign and wait for you. In 1823 civil war broke out between the guerrilla leader Thedoros Kolokotrnis and Gergios Kountouritis, who was head of the government that had been formed in January 1822 but that was forced to flee to the island of Hydra (dra) in December 1822. [169] While diplomats and statesmen debated what to do in London and St. Petersburg, the Egyptian advance continued in Greece. After one month of fighting and negotiations, an agreement was reached between Kolokotronis, from one side, and Londos and Zaimis, from the other side. Information and translations of greek war of independence in the most comprehensive dictionary definitions resource on the web. [216], On 21 July 1832, British Ambassador to the Sublime Porte Sir Stratford Canning and the other representatives of the Great Powers signed the Treaty of Constantinople, which defined the boundaries of the new Greek Kingdom at the ArtaVolos line. 327331. Many Git commands accept both tag and branch names, so creating this branch may cause unexpected behavior. [124] Reprisals and executions ensued, and women are reported to have flung themselves over the Arapitsa waterfall to avoid dishonor and being sold in slavery. Feraios wrote enthusiastic poems and books on Greek history and many became popular. Muhammad Ali Pashasent his son Ismail with an army and a fleet to help fight the Greeks and the Greek Christian revolutionaries asked for help from European Christians. Today are raised from the dead the fighters, political, religious, as well as military, for our King has come, that we begat with the power of God. [97] Some historians claim that Boyer also sent to the Greeks 25 tons of Haitian coffee that could be sold and the proceeds used to purchase weapons, but not enough evidence exists to support this or the other claim that one hundred Haitian volunteers set off to fight in the Greek Revolution. Unite, then, O brave and magnanimous Greeks! Favouring the formation of an autonomous Greek state, they offered to mediate between the Turks and the Greeks (1826 and 1827). [25] As the armatoloi's position gradually turned into a hereditary one, some captains took care of their armatolik as their personal property. [202], After the Greek delegation, led by Mavrocordatos, accepted the terms of the treaty, the Allies prepared to insist upon the armistice, and their fleets were instructed to intercept supplies destined for Ibrahim's forces. The great figures of the War itself include the well-known combatants: Theodoros Kolokotrones, the brigand (klepht) hero of the Peloponnese, Georgios Karaiskakes and Odysseus Androutsos, commanders of forces in Roumeli (continental Greece), and Ioannes Makrygiannes, whose Memoirs of the War are considered among the classics of Modern Greek literature. [26], By the time of the War of Independence powerful armatoloi could be traced in Rumeli, Thessaly, Epirus and southern Macedonia. In the early months of 1821, with the absence of the Ottoman governor of the Morea (Mora valesi) Hursid Pasha and many of his troops, the situation was favourable for the Greeks to rise against Ottoman occupation. [180], The losses Ibrahim Pasha had taken at Missolonghi had greatly reduced his army, and he spent the rest of 1826 chasing the Greek guerillas up and down the mountains. The Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia allowing for the Russian army to move into the Balkans, near Constantinople. The Greeks were later assisted by the British Empire, Kingdom of France, and the Russian Empire, while the Ottomans were aided by their North African vassals . He apologized for being unable to support the Revolution in Greece financially, though he hoped he might be able to in the future. In November 1822, the central administration decided that the new National Assembly would take place in Nafplion, and asked Kolokotronis to return the fort to the government. [86] In the summer of 1821, various young men from all over Europe began to gather in the French port of Marseilles to book a passage to Greece and join the revolution. [68] Some claim that the story first appears in 1824 in a book written by a French diplomat Franois Pouqueville, whose book is full of inventions. The role of the Philike Hetaireia, the secret political organization that coordinated the Wars initial leadership, has increasingly drawn the attention of scholars. "Freedom . All structured data from the main, Property, Lexeme, and EntitySchema namespaces is available under the Creative Commons CC0 License; text in the other namespaces is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. 6 March], he crossed the river Prut with his followers, entering the Danubian Principalities. Greek (539 quotes) Superheroes fill a gap in the pop culture psyche, similar to the role of Greek mythology. The London Philhellenic Committee helped insurgent Greece to float two loans in 1824 (800,000) and 1825 (2,000,000). The Hour of the Bell: A Novel of the 1821 Greek War of Independence Against the Turks. The statutes provided for the creation of two local administrative organs in Central Greece, an Areopagus in the east, and a Senate in the west. Map shows territorial shifts in Ukraine since war began one year ago. Solomos wrote the Hymn to Liberty, now the national anthem, in 1823, two years after the Greeks started the war against the Ottoman Empire. It is also not surprising that the War has served as the setting for many lively works of historical fiction. It is difficult sometimes to remember details about places and historic figures involved, especially when so many things took place during the decade long course of the Greek . Simultaneously, Ibrahim sent his fleet further down the Maniot coast in order to outflank the Greek defenders and attack them from the rear. The Commissioner of the Ionian Islands, which were a British colony, was ordered to consider the Greeks in a state of war and give them the right to cut off certain areas from which the Turks could get provisions. [69] However, a study on the archive of Hugues Pouqueville (Franois Pouqueville's brother) claims that Franois' account was accurate, without making any reference to the purported Anglophobia or Francophilia of Germanos. Watch on. [184] A week later, Lord Cochrane arrived to take command of the Greek Navy and refused to leave his yacht until the Greeks agreed to form a united government. [114] On 8 May, the Turks, infuriated by the landing of sailors from Psara at Tsayezi, by the capture of Turkish merchants and the seizure of their goods, rampaged through the streets of Serres, searched the houses of the notables for arms, imprisoned the Metropolitan and 150 merchants, and seized their goods as a reprisal for the plundering by the Psarians.[115]. Nicolas Joseph Maison, who was given command of a French expeditionary Corps of 15,000 men, landed on 30 August 1828 at Petalidi and helped the Greeks evacuate the Peloponnese from all the hostile troops by 30 October. [132] Short of men and money, the Ottoman state turned to hiring Albanian tribesmen to fight the Greeks, and by 1823, the bulk of the Ottoman forces in Greece were Albanian mercenaries hired for a campaigning season rather than the Ottoman Army. [5] In 1814, a secret organization called the Filiki Eteria (Society of Friends) was founded with the aim of liberating Greece, encouraged by revolution, which was common in Europe at the time. This influence was reinforced by the issuing of two loans that the Greeks managed to conclude with British fund-holders in 1824 and 1825. On 9 July 1821 Kk Pasha had the gates to the walled city of Nicosia closed and executed, by beheading or hanging, 470 important Cypriots amongst them Chrysanthos (bishop of Paphos), Meletios (bishop of Kition) and Lavrentios (bishop of Kyrenia). He is best known for being decapitated and thereafter providing wisdom to the chief of the gods, Odin. What Joe Biden Can Learn from the Greek War of Independence. Within a year the rebels had gained control of the Peloponnese, and in January 1822 they declared the independence of Greece. Be the first to contribute! After 8 years of fighting against the Turkish oppressors; the Greeks in 1832 finally gain. [155], On 7 February 1825, a second loan to Greece was floated in the City of London. Just click the "Edit page" button at the bottom of the page or learn more in the Quotes submission guide. All these were loosely besieged by local irregular forces under their own captains, since the Greeks lacked artillery. The Porte demanded compensation from the Allies for the ships, but his demand was refused on the grounds that the Turks had acted as the aggressors. They would go out in parties of fifty to a hundred, mounted on fleet horses, and scour the open country in search of Greek peasantry, who might from necessity or hardihood have ventured down upon the plains. The castle's defence was doomed after a seven-day siege and Dalianis perished along with 385 men. The Greeks managed to halt the Turkish advance at the Battle of Gravia under the leadership of Odysseas Androutsos, who, with a handful of men, inflicted heavy casualties upon the Turkish army. A vast oral tradition of folk poetry attests to the sympathy they evoked and their reputation for patriotism. 66.2 French Revolution of July 1830, and Greek War of Independence (2022 Podcast Episode) Quotes It looks like we don't have any Quotes for this title yet. [184] In the meantime, the siege of Athens continued. GeorgiadesArnakis asserts that "though the Porte took care not to attack the church as an institution, Greek ecclesiastical leaders knew that they were practically helpless in times of trouble. [56], Philhellenism made a notable contribution to romanticism, enabling the younger generation of artistic and literary intellectuals to expand the classical repertoire by treating modern Greek history as an extension of ancient history; the idea of a regeneration of the spirit of ancient Greece permeated the rhetoric of the Greek cause's supporters. As Vacalopoulos notes, however, "adequate preparations for rebellion had not been made, nor were revolutionary ideals to be reconciled with the ideological world of the monks within the Athonite regime". A great deal of power was placed in their hands and they integrated in the network of clientelist relationships that formed the Ottoman administration. [88] A young medical student in Mannheim wrote that hearing his professor lecture on the need for Greek freedom went through him like an electric shock, inspiring him to drop his studies and head to Greece, while a Danish student wrote: "How could a man inclined to fight for freedom and justice find a better place than next to the oppressed Greeks?". Our morals are more depreciated than our currency.". "The Origins of the Greek Revolution of 1821. Among them was De Rigny, who had an argument with Makriyannis and advised him to quit his weak position but Makriyannis ignored him. In February 1824, the loan for Greece was floated in the City, attracting some 472, 000 pounds sterling (~$17.4 million in 2021), which was money that the Greeks badly needed. He was 94 years old. His attitude towards Mavrokordatos caused outrage amongst the members of the legislative body. Corrections? The early successes of the Greek fleet in direct confrontations with the Ottomans at Patras and Spetses gave the crews confidence and contributed greatly to the survival and success of the uprising in the Peloponnese.