Because GABA has a quieting effect on the brain, GABA agonists also have a quieting effect; these types of drugs are often prescribed to treat both anxiety and insomnia. The body maintains homeostasis for many factors in addition to temperature. Furthermore, these types of behaviors ultimately disrupt sleep, although affected individuals have no memories that these behaviors have occurred (Arnulf, 2012). While we certainly welcome the convenience of having the darkness lit up, we also suffer the consequences of reduced amounts of sleep because we are more active during the nighttime hours than our ancestors were. Comparative research indicates, however, that the relationship that exists between predatory risk and sleep is very complex and equivocal. that would be one of the problems that Ive encountered. Generally, treatment for night terrors is unnecessary unless there is some underlying medical or psychological condition that is contributing to the night terrors (Mayo Clinic, n.d.). Interestingly, individuals who have increased levels of alpha brain wave activity (more often associated with wakefulness and transition into stage 1 sleep) during stage 3 often report that they do not feel refreshed upon waking, regardless of how long they slept (Stone, Taylor, McCrae, Kalsekar, & Lichstein, 2008). d. both b and c. 2. d. the gender gap between male and female life expectancy has increased. It appeared that Scott Falater had killed his wife in his sleep, or at least, that is the defense he used when he was tried for his wifes murder (Cartwright, 2004; CNN, 1999). More specifically, homeostasis is the body's tendency to monitor and maintain internal states, such as temperature and blood sugar, at fairly constant and stable levels. Sleep apnea is defined as a reduction or cessation of breathing during sleep. Interestingly, since the advent of electric light, the amount of sleep that people get has declined. High doses can induce sleep, cause motor disturbance, memory loss, decreased respiratory function, and death. The clock sets itself with light information received through projections from the retina. Narcoleptic episodes take on other features of REM sleep. Lucid dreamsare dreams in which certain aspects of wakefulness are maintained during a dream state. (credit a: modification of work by Jim Epler; credit b: modification of work by Caleb Roenigk), video about circadian rhythms and how they affect sleep, video that gives sleep tips for college students, video about the relationship between sleep and memory, instructional video about using Buddhist meditation techniques to alleviate stress, video about the results of a brain imaging study in individuals who underwent specific mindfulness meditative techniques, https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction, Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, Cocaine, amphetamines (including some ADHD medications such as Adderall), methamphetamines, MDMA (Ecstasy or Molly), Increased heart rate, blood pressure, body temperature. While hypnosis may be useful in enhancing memory or a skill, such enhancements are very modest in nature (Raz, 2011). Sleep-wake cycles seem to be controlled by multiple brain areas acting in conjunction with one another. Thus, opioid drugs, which mimic this endogenous painkilling mechanism, have an extremely high potential for abuse. Theta wavesare even lower frequency (47 Hz), higher amplitude brain waves than alpha waves. These drugs promote increased levels of neural activity. While hypnosis is generally achieved through the interaction of a therapist and the person being treated, an individual can perform meditation alone. A) managed care Recently, a new EPAP (expiratory positive air pressure) device has shown promise in double-blind trials as one such alternative (Berry, Kryger, & Massie, 2011). . For instance, if a woman dreams about being chased by a snake, Freud might have argued that this represents the womans fear of sexual intimacy, with the snake serving as a symbol of a mans penis. The treatment of insomnia likely would include stress management techniques and changes in problematic behaviors that could contribute to insomnia (e.g., spending more waking time in bed). This will be followed by brief descriptions of the effects of some of the more well-known drugs commonly used today. Drug withdrawal is usually an aversive experience, and it can be a life-threatening process in individuals who have a long history of very high doses of alcohol and/or barbiturates. Users experience increased energy, feelings of pleasure, and emotional warmth. Some sleep-deprived individuals have difficulty staying awake when they stop moving (for example sitting and watching television or driving a car). It was getting to the point where it was kind of scary (Henry & Rosenthal, 2013, p. 52). Whether lark, owl, or somewhere in between, there are situations in which a persons circadian clock gets out of synchrony with the external environment. For example, Hobson (2009) suggests that dreaming may represent a state of protoconsciousness. . They named each of the three states: "Close," when a male is closer than average to a female and approaching her slowly; "Chasing," when he is approaching quickly; and "Whatever," when he is facing away from her and moving slowly. A number of risk factors have been associated with SIDS including premature birth, smoking within the home, and hyperthermia. AK-complexis a very high amplitude pattern of brain activity that may in some cases occur in response to environmental stimuli. While there is tremendous variation in any given individuals sleep needs, the National Sleep Foundation (n.d.) cites research to estimate that newborns require the most sleep (between 12 and 18 hours a night) and that this amount declines to just 79 hours by the time we are adults. Just as bears hibernate in the winter when resources are scarce, perhaps people sleep at night to reduce their energy expenditures. Parasomnias can occur in either REM or NREM phases of sleep. In fact, this relationship is so robust that some view the presence of RBD as a potential aid in the diagnosis and treatment of a number of neurodegenerative diseases (Ferini-Strambi, 2011). People sleep better in cooler temperatures. Aside from the role that REM sleep may play in processes related to learning and memory, REM sleep may also be involved in emotional processing and regulation. Anopioidis one of a category of drugs that includes heroin, morphine, methadone, and codeine. Participants were told they would not feel pain, but they could press a button if they did; while they reported not feeling pain, they did, in fact, press the button, suggesting a dissociation of consciousness while in the hypnotic state (Hilgard & Hilgard, 1994). This final section will consider hypnotic and meditative states as additional examples of altered states of consciousness experienced by some individuals. In some cases, though, there may be no symptoms of inflammation at all. Avoid alcohol, cigarettes, caffeine, and heavy meals before bed. One particular aspect of the internal state is that a method applied to the object being in a defined internal state (= a specific set of all its attributes' value) will result in another, also defined (and reproducible) internal state. Jet lagis a collection of symptoms that results from the mismatch between our internal circadian cycles and our environment. This discomfort is relieved by deliberately moving the legs, which, not surprisingly, contributes to difficulty in falling or staying asleep. Typically, individuals suffering from night terrors will fall back asleep again within a short time. That includes exercise and bright light from devices. Awareness of external stimuli includes experiences such as seeing the light from the sun, feeling the warmth of a room, and hearing the voice of a friend. Describe the diagnostic criteria for substance use disorders, Identify the neurotransmitter systems impacted by various categories of drugs, Describe how different categories of drugs affect behavior and experience, Understand the similarities and differences of hypnosis and meditation. Try going to bed and waking up at the same time every day to keep your biological clock in sync so your body gets in the habit of sleeping every night. Depletion of certain neurotransmitters can lead to mood dysphoria, cognitive problems, and other factors. There are now several synthetic versions of opiate drugs (correctly called opioids) that have very potent painkilling effects, and they are often abused. Therefore, it is quite likely that new medications that are developed to treat narcolepsy will be designed to target the hypocretin system. This created a black market for the drug, where prices soared to $80 or more for a single pill. You have read that the pineal gland releases melatonin during sleep (Figure 4.6). The pituitary gland also secretes growth hormone, during sleep, which plays a role in physical growth and maturation as well as other metabolic processes (Bartke, Sun, & Longo, 2013). Despite recent changes in laws designed to make obtaining pseudoephedrine more difficult, methamphetamine continues to be an easily accessible and relatively inexpensive drug option (Shukla, Crump, & Chrisco, 2012). While we all experience altered states of consciousness in the form of sleep on a regular basis, some people use drugs and other substances that result in altered states of consciousness as well. 1. Individuals who do rotating shift work are also likely to experience disruptions in circadian cycles. Two theories attempt to answer this question: One theory views hypnosis as dissociation and the other theory views it as the performance of a social role. The following describe internal states of symptoms EXCEPT? Clonazepam, an anti-anxiety medication with sedative properties, is most often used to treat RBD. In some cases, users experience vivid visual hallucinations. Unlike Freud and Jung, Cartwrights ideas about dreaming have found empirical support. A person withrestless leg syndromehas uncomfortable sensations in the legs during periods of inactivity or when trying to fall asleep. Neurogenic shock is caused by damage to the central nervous system, usually a spinal cord injury. Opioids have analgesic properties; that is, they decrease pain. Sleep apnea is much more common in overweight people and is often associated with loud snoring. 22. Some people might turn to over-the-counter (OTC) or prescribed sleep medications to help them sleep, but this should be done sparingly because many sleep medications result in dependence and alter the nature of the sleep cycle, and they can increase insomnia over time. As one of their mechanisms of action, cocaine and amphetamines block the reuptake of dopamine from the synapse into the presynaptic cell. C) the severity and duration of the problem. Upon a search of the premises, police found blood-stained clothes and a bloody knife in the trunk of Falaters car, and he had blood stains on his neck. During periods of sleepwalking, sleepers often have their eyes open, but they are not responsive to attempts to communicate with them. Alan Hobson, a neuroscientist, is credited for developing activation-synthesis theory of dreaming. Alcohol, barbiturates (e.g., secobarbital, pentobarbital), Benzodiazepines (e.g., Xanax). A few such benefits listed by the National Sleep Foundation (n.d.) include maintaining healthy weight, lowering stress levels, improving mood, and increasing motor coordination, as well as a number of benefits related to cognition and memory formation. Those who continue to have insomnia, particularly if it affects their quality of life, should seek professional treatment. These symptoms include fatigue, sluggishness, irritability, andinsomnia(i.e., a consistent difficulty in falling or staying asleep for at least three nights a week over a months time) (Roth, 2007). Some research suggests that species that face higher predatory risks sleep fewer hours than other species (Capellini et al., 2008), while other researchers suggest there is no relationship between the amount of time a given species spends in deep sleep and its predation risk (Lesku, Roth, Amlaner, & Lima, 2006). (credit: Laurie Avocado). As an individual continues through stage 1 sleep, there is an increase in theta wave activity. Adenosine is a neurotransmitter that promotes sleep. Homeostasisis the tendency to maintain a balance, or optimal level, within a biological system. This often results in sleeping problems, and it can lead to signs of depression and anxiety. The lifespan perspective in health psychology reveals that adolescents One of the shortcomings with the health belief model is Risk factors for a health problem People whose personalities include high levels of _____ seem to be "disease" Like all opioids, codeine does have abuse potential. (a) A typical CPAP device used in the treatment of sleep apnea is (b) affixed to the head with straps, and a mask that covers the nose and mouth. This is an important factor because we can develop tolerance and experience withdrawal from any number of drugs that we do not abuse. As a result, many scientists have urged the federal government to allow for relaxation of current marijuana laws and classifications in order to facilitate a more widespread study of the drugs effects (Aggarwal et al., 2009; Bostwick, 2012; Kogan & Mechoulam, 2007). In contrast, a person who haspsychological dependencehas an emotional, rather than physical, need for the drug and may use the drug to relieve psychological distress. The early portion of stage 1 sleep producesalpha waves, which are relatively low frequency (813Hz), high amplitude patterns of electrical activity (waves) that become synchronized (Figure 4.8). (b) Heroin is cooked on a spoon over a candle. (Jayanthi & Ramamoorthy, 2005; Rothman, Blough, & Baumann, 2007). Medical marijuana is legal in over half of the United States and in the District of Columbia (Figure 4.19). Some can cause heightened sensitivity to physical stimuli. Rotating shift work has pervasive effects on the lives and experiences of individuals engaged in that kind of work, which is clearly illustrated in stories reported in a qualitative study that researched the experiences of middle-aged nurses who worked rotating shifts (West, Boughton & Byrnes, 2009). Stage 2 sleep is characterized by the appearance of both sleep spindles and K-complexes. An agonist facilitates the activity of a neurotransmitter system, and antagonists impede neurotransmitter activity. Once she was able to limit her use to less than 12 ounces of soda a day, both her mental and physical health gradually improved. Mescaline and LSD are serotonin agonists, and PCP (angel dust) and ketamine (an animal anesthetic) act as antagonists of the NMDA glutamate receptor. Devices like this are designed to provide exposure to bright light to help people maintain a regular circadian cycle. Sleepwalking most often occurs during slow-wave sleep, but it can occur at any time during a sleep period in some affected individuals (Mahowald & Schenck, 2000). Indeed, we know sleep deprivation results in disruptions in cognition and memory deficits (Brown, 2012), leading to impairments in our abilities to maintain attention, make decisions, and recall long-term memories. Drugs in this category include cocaine, amphetamines (including methamphetamine), cathinones (i.e., bath salts), MDMA (ecstasy), nicotine, and caffeine. Scott Falater had a history of regular episodes of sleepwalking as a child, and he had even behaved violently toward his sister once when she tried to prevent him from leaving their home in his pajamas during a sleepwalking episode. These brain areas include the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia. Biological rhythmsare internal rhythms of biological activity. Originally reported as a safe alternative to the known cancer-causing agents found in cigarettes, vaping is now known to be very dangerous and has led to serious lung disease and death in users. However, alternative treatment options are being explored because consistent compliance by users of CPAP devices is a problem. Gastrointestinal symptoms including abdominal pain, diarrhea, and vomiting. In a lucid dream, a person becomes aware of the fact that they are dreaming, and as such, they can control the dreams content (LaBerge, 1990). We spend approximately one-third of our lives sleeping. Restless leg syndrome is quite common and has been associated with a number of other medical diagnoses, such as chronic kidney disease and diabetes (Mahowald & Schenck, 2000). By the end of this section, you will be able to: Consciousnessdescribes our awareness of internal and external stimuli. Our states of consciousness change as we move from wakefulness to sleep. This campaign is sponsored in part by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. Repeated use of these stimulants can have significant adverse consequences. High doses increase agitation, paranoia, can cause hallucinations. The decade from 20102019 brought many changes in laws regarding marijuana. Caffeine is another stimulant drug. Hypnosisis a state of extreme self-focus and attention in which minimal attention is given to external stimuli. Stage 3is often referred to as deep sleep or slow-wave sleep because this stage is characterized by low frequency (less than 3 Hz), high amplitudedelta waves(Figure 4.10). One of the most common treatments for sleep apnea involves the use of a special device during sleep. Once awakened from a narcoleptic attack, people report that they feel refreshed (Chokroverty, 2010). The following describe internal states of symptoms EXCEPT? Until recently, the United States Department of Justice routinely arrested people involved and seized marijuana used in medicinal settings. Because the biological clock is driven by light, exposure to bright light during working shifts and dark exposure when not working can help combat insomnia and symptoms of anxiety and depression (Huang, Tsai, Chen, & Hsu, 2013). Methamphetamine addiction produces an intense craving that is difficult to treat. Homeostatic regulation of sleep is evidenced by sleep rebound following sleep deprivation. These will soon, in all ordinary cases, subdue the most distressing symptoms, and effect a perfect cure in a day or two. Hypnosis in conjunction with other techniques is used for a variety of therapeutic purposes and has shown to be at least somewhat effective for pain management, treatment of depression and anxiety, smoking cessation, and weight loss (Alladin, 2012; Elkins, Johnson, & Fisher, 2012; Golden, 2012; Montgomery, Schnur, & Kravits, 2012). Toleranceis linked to physiological dependence, and it occurs when a person requires more and more drug to achieve effects previously experienced at lower doses. Therefore, it is important to make a distinction between hypnosis as an empirically based therapeutic approach versus as a form of entertainment. Contrary to popular belief, individuals undergoing hypnosis usually have clear memories of the hypnotic experience and are in control of their own behaviors. I was really sleepy and having trouble concentrating. Ebola virus disease (EVD), formerly known as Ebola haemorrhagic fever, is a rare but severe, often fatal illness in humans. These symptoms usually are opposite of the effects of the drug. In 2015, the National Sleep Foundation updated their sleep duration hours, to better accommodate individual differences. Ethanol, which we commonly refer to as alcohol, is in a class of psychoactive drugs known as depressants (Figure 4.15). In this section, we will discuss each of these stages of sleep and their associated patterns of brain wave activity. In such instances, REM rebound may actually represent an adaptive response to stress in non-depressed individuals by suppressing the emotional salience of aversive events that occurred in wakefulness (Suchecki, Tiba, & Machado, 2012). a. The participant is made comfortable and is directed to be relaxed and sleepy. Low doses increase relaxation, decrease inhibitions. Central sleep apnea is caused by a failure of the brain to activate the muscles of breathing during sleep. Nicotine is highly addictive, and the use of tobacco products is associated with increased risks of heart disease, stroke, and a variety of cancers. Some animals never sleep (e.g., some fish and amphibian species); other animals sleep very little without apparent negative consequences (e.g., giraffes); yet some animals (e.g., rats) die after two weeks of sleep deprivation (Siegel, 2008). In fact, it has been suggested that there is no reason to think that energetic demands could not be addressed with periods of rest and inactivity (Frank, 2006; Rial et al., 2007), and some research has actually found a negative correlation between energetic demands and the amount of time spent sleeping (Capellini, Barton, McNamara, Preston, & Nunn, 2008). At rather low doses, alcohol use is associated with feelings of euphoria. Moreover, these impairments become more severe as the amount of sleep deprivation increases (Alhola & Polo-Kantola, 2007). Generally, and for most people, our circadian cycles are aligned with the outside world. The participant is guided to focus on one thing, such as the hypnotists words or a ticking watch. Research indicates that meditation may help reduce blood pressure, and the American Heart Association suggests that meditation might be used in conjunction with more traditional treatments as a way to manage hypertension, although there is not sufficient data for a recommendation to be made (Brook et al., 2013). Historically, heroin has been a major opioid drug of abuse (Figure 4.17). (credit: modification of work by Mikael Hggstrm). Marijuana, LSD, Peyote, mescaline, DMT, dissociative anesthetics including ketamine and PCP, Increased heart rate and blood pressure that may dissipate over time, Mild to intense perceptual changes with high variability in effects based on strain, method of ingestion, and individual differences, Understand what is meant by consciousness, Explain how circadian rhythms are involved in regulating the sleep-wake cycle, and how circadian cycles can be disrupted, Describe areas of the brain involved in sleep, Understand hormone secretions associated with sleep, Describe several theories aimed at explaining the function of sleep, Differentiate between REM and non-REM sleep, Describe the differences between the three stages of non-REM sleep, Understand the role that REM and non-REM sleep play in learning and memory, Describe the symptoms and treatments of insomnia, Recognize the symptoms of several parasomnias, Describe the symptoms and treatments for sleep apnea, Recognize risk factors associated with sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) and steps to prevent it, Describe the symptoms and treatments for narcolepsy. There are two types of sleep apnea: obstructive sleep apnea and central sleep apnea. . While "internal state" or impulsivity are terms more generally discussed in psychology or neuroscience, the concept is familiar to anyone. Thus, K-complexes might serve as a bridge to higher levels of arousal in response to what is going on in our environments (Halsz, 1993; Steriade & Amzica, 1998). Stimulantsare drugs that tend to increase overall levels of neural activity. The researchers showed that these states correspond to distinct strategies, and then they identified . Hypnosis has also been used to draw out information believed to be buried deeply in someones memory. Although individuals suffering from night terrors appear to be awake, they generally have no memories of the events that occurred, and attempts to console them are ineffective. Opioid addiction reached crisis levels in the United States such that by 2019, an average of 130 people diedeach dayof an opioid overdose (NIDA, 2019). Primary signs and symptoms of Ebola often include some or several of the following: Fever. When we are very young, we spend up to 16 hours a day sleeping. During this time, there is a slowdown in both the rates of respiration and heartbeat. Some people also experience altered states of consciousness through meditation, hypnosis, or alcohol and other drugs. Sleep regulationrefers to the brains control of switching between sleep and wakefulness as well as coordinating this cycle with the outside world. A hypnogram is a diagram of the stages of sleep as they occur during a period of sleep. The following morning, he awoke to barking dogs and unfamiliar voices from downstairs. Abnormal Motor Behavior. In addition to withdrawal, many individuals who are diagnosed with substance use disorders will also develop tolerance to these substances. For individuals who are especially open to the power of suggestion, hypnosis can prove to be a very effective technique, and brain imaging studies have demonstrated that hypnotic states are associated with global changes in brain functioning (Del Casale et al., 2012; Guldenmund, Vanhaudenhuyse, Boly, Laureys, & Soddu, 2012). This disorder is associated with a number of neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinsons disease. Pain relief, euphoria, sleepiness. In addition, these individuals may wake up several times during the night only to find that they have difficulty getting back to sleep. In 2013, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration recommended tighter controls on their medical use. Therefore, the abuse potential of central nervous system depressants is relatively high. If people are deprived of REM sleep and then allowed to sleep without disturbance, they will spend more time in REM sleep in what would appear to be an effort to recoup the lost time in REM. For instance, the concentration of various ions in your blood must be kept steady, along with pH and the concentration of glucose. Treatment. 23. One popular hypothesis of sleep incorporates the perspective of evolutionary psychology. Sleep apneais defined by episodes during which a sleepers breathing stops. Recent adaptations (e.g., Hobson, 2002) continue to update the theory based on accumulating evidence. Tolerance can cause the user to increase the amount of drug used to a dangerous leveleven to the point of overdose and death. Opium, Heroin, Fentanyl, Morphine, Oxycodone, Vicoden, methadone, and other prescription pain relievers, Decreased pain, pupil dilation, decreased gut motility, decreased respiratory function. (a) Delta waves, which are low frequency and high amplitude, characterize (b) slow-wave stage 3 and stage 4 sleep. He suffered from no apparent anatomical brain anomalies or psychological disorders. We experience different states of consciousness and different levels of awareness on a regular basis. Some people who have injected many times into their arms will show track marks, while other users will inject into areas between their fingers or between their toes, so as not to show obvious track marks and, like all abusers of intravenous drugs, have an increased risk for contraction of both tuberculosis and HIV. The virus is transmitted to people from wild animals and spreads in the human population through human-to-human transmission. As the dose increases, people report feeling sedated. As he went to investigate what was going on, he was met by a group of police officers who arrested him for the murder of his wife (Cartwright, 2004; CNN, 1999). In addition, stage 1 sleep involves a marked decrease in both overall muscle tension and core body temperature. How exactly does a hypnotist bring a participant to a state of hypnosis? Depending on the population and sleep disorder being studied, between 30% and 50% of the population suffers from a sleep disorder at some point in their lives (Bixler, Kales, Soldatos, Kaels, & Healey, 1979; Hossain & Shapiro, 2002; Ohayon, 1997, 2002; Ohayon & Roth, 2002).
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